Linking overfishing to environmental theories

The Age of Enlightenment, also referred to as the Age of Reason, which started to develop in the 18^th century, is a philosophical and social movement that “include[s] a commitment to reason and science and the freedom of the individual. Mysticism and appeals to ancient forms of philosophy were to be dismissed.” (Dickens, 2004: 1) A key aspect in the creation of the Age of Reason was nature. Both internally and externally, the understanding and exploitation of nature was vital to the Age of Reason. In this respect, nature was seen as primarily resource for human purposes and consumption. (Dickens, 2004: 2)

With regards to fish and the exploitation of fisheries, it can be said overfishing stems from this concept of the Age of Enlightenment. Fish has been an intrinsic source of

protein for man throughout history, and in certain cultures the use of the fish in narratives was prominent. From the Christian use of the symbol of a fish, to the Egyptians worshiping the goddess Hatmehit, “Chief of Fish”, many cultures have embraced the species as sanctified.

However, as previously mentioned, a rise of overfishing practices came in the 20^th century, when governments wanted to increase the availability of the protein rich food. This rise in the exploitation of fisheries proves that overfishing stems from the Age of Reason concept that nature should be used as an economic resource.ource for human purposes and consumption. (Dickens, 2004: 2)

The exploitation of nature and animals, and in this case fish, comes with what John Berger (1980: 23) describes as the “reduction of the animal”. Humans have raised themselves above nature. Anthropomorphism was disregarded and modern educated readers believed that animals could not be ascribed human qualities such as gentleness or wisdom. (Berger, 1980: 20)

Descartes model proposed that humans are the only dualistic creatures that posses both body (mechanical) and mind (spiritual). He believed that animals were soulless and therefore could be reduced to the model of a machine. (Cliffnotes.com, 2011) This, in conjunction with the technological advances that came with the industrial revolution, allowed for the exploitation of animals that is still seen today. This theory proves true to the fishing industry, as it is an industry facing high levels of exploitation due to the combination of the belief that animals are to be used as machines, and the technological advances that allow for overfishing to occur.

Finally, another discourse that can be applied to overfishing or the exploitation of fisheries is that of Robert Brulle. Brulle came up with nine environmental discourses or discursive frames, which were adopted by the US environmental movement. (Hannigan, 2006: 17) The first one, manifest destiny, is an appropriate discourse that can be applied to overfishing. Manifest destiny provides economic and moral justification for the exploitation of natural resources. The key components of this discourse, as described by Brulle (2000: 115) are:

• Nature has no intrinsic value.
• Human welfare is based on development of the natural environment.
• The natural environment is unproductive and valueless without development.
• Human labor transforms the natural environment into useful commodities.

With these components that make up manifest destiny, one can see how the exploitation of fisheries has been justified and rationalised.

On the other side of the scale, the conservation, protection and management of marine areas can be related to the theory of ecological modernisation. As explained by Arthur P. J. Mol (2002: 93): “The basic premise of ecological modernization theory is the centripetal movement of ecological interests, ideas and considerations in social and institutional developments.” Arising in the mid 1980’s, this perspective believed that modern institutions and practices could not carry on deteriorated and exploiting natural resources; that some sort of environmental reform needed to be established in order achieve sustainability. The process of environmental reform came alive through the actions of governmental organisations and departments, constructed to deal with environmental issues, as well as green parties and NGO’s.

From an economic perspective, ecological modernisation frowns upon the capitalist ideas of mass production and consumption and puts forward that ecological concerns should be equally important as economic ones. With this in mind, some profound institutional changes came about in the 1980’s onward. These changes included “widespread emergence of environmental management systems, the introduction of an economic valuation of environmental goods via the introduction of eco-taxes…[and] the increasing importance attached to environmental goals such as natural resource saving and recycling among public and private utility enterprises.” (Mol, 2002: 94)

With the over exploitation of fisheries being curbed by the efforts of various environmental organisations, such as the WWF’s MPAs and Greenpeace’s sustainable fishing, one can see the ecological modernisation theory in practice.

Another aspect of ecological modernisation is that of a global civil society. (Mol, 2002: 108) As a society we now, through the public information and communications, have the power to make our own decisions as to what we consume. In conjunction to this, we have the power to “challenge environmental destructiveness of global capitalism.” (Mol, 2002: 108) The new concerned consumer has implications on multinational corporations as in order to succeed; these multinationals now need to adhere to not only political actors but representatives of civil society as well. This global civil society, although not resulting in instant major environmental improvements, can however provide a glance of the future of global environmental governance. (Mol, 2002: 109)

The Seafood Redlist, provided by Greenpeace in the hopes to achieve sustainable seafood, is a good example of how organisations have assisted in creating a global civil society. The Redlist, which provides consumers with a list of fish that are being overfished and should be avoided, allows consumers to make informed decisions with regards to the seafood purchases. As ecological modernisation states, concerned, informed consumers who favour sustainable fishing practices, will affect fishing corporations and will hopefully decrease the over exploitation of certain fisheries.

The ecological modernisation theory can furthermore be related to many of Brulle’s environmental discourses. Conservation, preservation and deep ecology, to name a few, are discourses, which directly link to the theory of ecological modernisation and environmental reform.

Conservation can be defined as the technical management of natural resources from a utilitarian perspective (Hannigan, 1995:17) The actions taken by global environmental organisations to maintain fisheries, such as the EBM as proposed by the WWF and sustainable fishing as proposed by Greenpeace, are good examples of conservation methods that have been implemented to assist the sustainability of fisheries. Preservation, on the other hand, can be described as the protection of wilderness and wildlife from human incursion. (Hannigan, 1995:17) The WWF Marine Protected Areas form a good example of preservation in the overfishing crisis.

References:

1. Berger, J. (1980). Why Look at Animals. In: About Looking. New York: Vintage Books.

2. Brulle, R. (2000). Agency, Democracy and Nature: The U.S Environmental Movement from a Critical Perspective. London: MIT Press.

3. CliffNotes.com. (2011). Can you explain Cartesian Dualism and how Descartes' philosophical endeavors led him to dualism? . Available: http://www.cliffsnotes.com/Section/id-305403,articleId-53264.html. Last accessed 20 April 2011.

4. Dickens, P (2004). Chapter 1. In: Society and Nature: changing our environment, changing ourselves. Cambridge: Polity Press.

5. Hannigan, J. (1995). Chapter 3: Environmental Discourse. In: Environmental Sociology. New York: Routledge.

6. Mol, A.P.J. (2002). Ecological Modernization and the Global Economy. Global Environmental Politics. Vol. 2, No.2, 92-115.

Images:

Automopedia.org. (2011). Christian Fish Symbol [Online Image]. Available: http://www.automopedia.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/fish_black.gif. Last accessed 20 April 2011.

Mysteries in stone. (n.d.). Hatmehit [Online Image]. Available: http://www.mysteries-in-stone.co.uk/images/hatmehit.gif. Last accessed 20 April 2011.